Risks are classified according to the level of losses. Electricity losses in electrical networks

Risk- this is the likelihood of losses or a decrease in expected income or profit compared to an acceptable option due to a random change in the conditions of economic activity, unfavorable circumstances, including force majeure.

Under entrepreneurial risk It is generally accepted to understand the possible (probabilistic) danger (threat) of the occurrence of material and financial losses of part of the income of an enterprise not provided for by the project plan as a result of carrying out entrepreneurial (production, commercial, investment and financial) activities in conditions of uncertainty and lack of information for making management decisions. The main prerequisite for the emergence of business risk is the presence of competition and alternative solutions to certain issues of enterprise development and the efficiency of its functioning:

The reasons for business risk are:

- sudden unexpected changes in environment(price increases, changes in tax legislation and socio-political situation, etc.);

– the appearance of more advantageous offers for partners (the opportunity to conclude a more profitable agreement, with more attractive terms and conditions of payment), which encourages them to refuse to conclude or fulfill previous agreements;

– changes in partners’ goals (due to increased status, accumulation of positive performance results, changes in strategy, etc.);

– changes in the conditions for the movement of goods, financial and labor resources between enterprises (the emergence of new customs conditions, new borders, etc.).

Distinguish global(national) and local(at the enterprise level) risks. They condition each other, influence each other and at the same time are autonomous. For example, making a decision at the state level to change (tighten) tax, credit and financial policies introduces elements of risk into the activities of an enterprise. And vice versa, individual decisions made at the enterprise level to change the assortment and volume of production, implement certain social programs and the like" may be included in. contradiction with national interests and contribute to the emergence of global risks.

Depending on the duration of exposure, they are classified into:

– short-term risks - risks in which the threat of loss is limited to a certain period of time (choice of an optional counterparty, transport risk when transporting a certain cargo; risk of non-payment for a specific transaction);

– constant risks - risks that continuously threaten business activity in a given geographical area or in a certain sector of the economy (the risk of non-payment in a country with an imperfect legal system; the risk of a ban and the introduction of production quotas).

They are classified according to sources of occurrence:

– the actual economic risk;

-risk associated with the personality of workers;

-risk caused by natural factors.

Based on the reasons for their occurrence, the following risks are identified:

– caused by the uncertainty of the future;

– unpredictability of partners’ behavior;

– lack of information.

By type of enterprise, risk is classified into industrial, commercial and financial.

Production risk- this is a risk associated with the production of uncompetitive products (works, services), with the implementation of ineffective production activities, a discrepancy between the quality of products and demand, an increase in material or other costs, an increase in lost working time, payment of increased taxes and interest on the loan, which leads to a decrease in the expected production volumes and its efficiency. Production risk includes many risks, such as technical and investment.

Technical risk - the risk of losses caused by the use of ineffective technologies and materials, equipment breakdowns.

Investment risk - the risk of incurring losses or not making a profit as a result of investing in new technology
and technologies, the production of products based on which is not
will meet demand.

Commercial risk - risk in the area of ​​sales of manufactured goods and services or during procurement necessary resources enterprise. Causes of commercial risk: a decrease in sales volume due to changes in market conditions, an increase in the purchase price of resources, an unforeseen decrease in the volume of purchases, losses of goods during the circulation process, an increase in distribution costs.

Financial risk- risk in the sphere of relations of the enterprise with banks and other financial institutions. The financial risk of an enterprise is most often measured by the ratio of the value borrowed money to the amount of own funds. The higher this ratio, the more the enterprise depends on creditors in its activities, the greater the risk, because the termination of lending or tightening of credit conditions may lead to the suspension of production.

You can find an additional classification of business risks. For example, commercial risks include:

– risks of incorrect choice of economic goals of an entrepreneurial project (unreasonable determination of priorities for the overall economic and market strategy of the enterprise; inadequate assessment of the needs of its own production and external consumption);

– risks of the project not being provided with financing or the source of financing for the project disappearing during its implementation;

– risks of non-compliance with the planned expenditure schedule or income schedule for the project,

– marketing risks of selling products or purchasing resources for an entrepreneurial project;

– risks of interaction with counterparties and partners;

– risks of unforeseen expenses and exceeding the project cost estimate (the risk of an increase in market prices for resources; the risk of an increase in interest rates in the future; the risk of having to pay penalties and arbitration costs);

– risks of unforeseen competition (the risk of enterprises from other industries entering the industry; the risk of the emergence of local young competing enterprises; the risk of expansion into the local market by foreign exporters).

Entrepreneurial risk has a number of functions:

– the function of generating entrepreneurial income by taking advantage of a favorable market situation;

–an innovative function performed by an entrepreneur to produce innovative goods, meet market needs and ensure sustainable reproduction on an innovative basis;

– an analytical function that facilitates the implementation of the necessary economic maneuver at the right time to generate business income;

–social function, when risk stimulates the development of entrepreneurial abilities of employees of business structures, which increases their income, and therefore budget revenues and reduces the unemployment rate.

All factors influencing the growth of the risk level of an enterprise can be divided into external and internal; objective and subjective; direct and indirect impact.

External risk factors- unfavorable events in the environment external to the enterprise that cannot be influenced by the enterprise. External factors are called objective, independent of the enterprise itself: inflation, competition, political, socio-economic and environmental crises, customs duties, abolition of most favored nation treatment, lack of opportunity to work in free economic enterprise zones.

Factors that directly impact risk- factors that directly affect the level of risk (changes in the tax system, competition in the market, changes in demand for products).

Factors of indirect impact- factors that do not have a direct, immediate impact on the level of risk, but contribute to its change (international situation, political and general economic situation in the country, the economic situation of the industry, etc.).

It is advisable to analyze risk factors external to an enterprise in the context of a general description of its functioning in conditions of real or possible interaction with economic counterparties and environments.

So, properties external environment relate primarily to natural and climatic factors; the socio-demographic" situation in the region, which determines its labor surplus or labor shortage for various categories of workers, the prestige of a particular profession or type of activity; socio-political conditions on which the situation in the region, the degree of orientation of the population toward productive labor, and the level of social tension depend; the state of the consumer market as a background for the formation of regional needs for the enterprise’s products; the standard of living of the population as a factor in paying for this need; purchasing power of the ruble; dynamics of inflation and inflation expectations; the general level of entrepreneurial activity, which characterizes people’s propensity to engage in entrepreneurial initiatives.

In the sphere of circulation, the activities of an enterprise may be subject to the influence of such external factors, such as violation by related enterprises of agreed schedules for the supply of raw materials, components, etc., unmotivated refusal of wholesale consumers to export or pay for received finished products, bankruptcy or self-liquidation of counterparty enterprises or business partners, which leads to the disappearance of suppliers of raw materials or consumers of finished products.

Internal factors risk are generated by production
commercial activities the enterprise itself, the subjective decisions of its leaders.

In the process of production, reproduction, circulation and management, specific factors arise that can provoke corresponding risks. Risk factors for core production activities include an insufficient level of technological discipline, accidents, unscheduled shutdowns of equipment or interruptions in the technological cycle of an enterprise due to forced readjustment of equipment (for example, due to an unexpected change in the parameters of raw materials or materials used in the technological process).

Risk factors for auxiliary production activities are interruptions in power supply, prolongation of equipment repair times compared to planned ones, breakdowns of auxiliary systems (ventilation devices, water and heat supply systems, etc.), unpreparedness of the enterprise's instrumental facilities for the development of a new product, etc.

In the sphere of servicing the production processes of an enterprise, risk factors may include disruptions in the operation of services that ensure the uninterrupted functioning of the main and auxiliary production. For example, an accident or fire in warehousing, failure (full or partial) of computing power in the information processing system, etc. The reason for the deterioration of the economic situation of the enterprise may be insufficient patent protection of the enterprise's products and manufacturing technology, which allowed competitors to master the production of similar products.

Risks of a reproduction nature are associated mainly with the unjustified investment activity of the enterprise and the processes of recruitment, training, retraining and advanced training of personnel.

Internal risk factors management activities can be classified according to the level of decision-making: strategic, tactical or operational. At the level of acceptance by the management of the enterprise strategic decisions The following internal planning and marketing risk factors can be identified:

– erroneous choice or inadequate formulation of the enterprise’s own goals;

–incorrect assessment of the strategic potential of the enterprise;

– erroneous forecast of the development of the external economic environment for the enterprise in the long term, etc.

Risk in decision making tactical level First of all, it is associated with the possibility of distortion or partial loss of meaningful information during the transition from strategic planning to tactical, If when developing specific tactical decisions they have not been tested for compliance with the chosen strategy of the enterprise, then such results, even if achieved, may be outside the mainstream strategic direction activities of the enterprise and thus weaken its economic stability.

Factors of indirect impact include such factors as insufficient quality of enterprise management. In turn, this may be due to the lack of such necessary qualities management team, such as cohesion, teamwork experience, people management skills, etc.

It is obvious that at any level of decisions made there may be both external and internal for of this enterprise risk factors. It can be assumed that for strategic decisions the number and role of external risk factors is much higher than for tactical or operational ones.

Risk planning is a predictive assessment of possible resource losses. It is necessary to quantify the forecast values. Knowing the probable losses of each type of resource when planning a development strategy, it is possible to estimate the total risk associated with the chosen strategy option.
Risk-related losses may be:
Material losses are additional costs of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, equipment and other property not provided for by the plan. These losses are assessed both in physical and monetary terms.
Labor losses - appear in unplanned costs of working time and can be expressed in physical and cost terms.
Financial losses – have direct monetary damage.
Time loss is associated with the pace of strategy implementation when the production process economic activity is being carried out more slowly than planned.
Other losses - losses associated with damage to prestige, moral and psychological damage to the environment.
Most at risk in market economy prices are subject to. Changes in prices affect not only changes in sales costs. Changes in market prices affect supply and demand, that is, changes in volumetric sales indicators.
Depending on the causes of occurrence, risk groups are distinguished:
1. External risks: Unpredictable external risks and Predictable external risks
2.Internal risks: Internal organizational risks and Internal technical risks:
3. Other risks: - legal; - transport and customs incidents; - risks associated with human health (bodily injuries, injuries); - damage to property during dismantling and relocation.
risks allows you to find effective means of preventing and reducing them.

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As follows from the previous presentation, the central place in assessing business risk is occupied by the analysis and forecasting of possible losses of resources when carrying out business activities.

Let us recall once again that we do not mean the consumption of resources, which is objectively determined by the nature and scale of entrepreneurial actions, but random, unforeseen, but potentially possible losses that arise as a result of deviations of the actual course of entrepreneurship from the planned scenario.

In order to assess the likelihood of certain losses caused by the development of events according to an unforeseen option, you should first of all know all types of losses associated with business and be able to calculate them in advance or measure them as probable forecast values. At the same time, it is natural to want to evaluate each type of loss in quantitative terms and be able to bring them together, which, unfortunately, is not always possible to do.

When talking about calculating probable losses in the process of forecasting them, one important circumstance must be kept in mind. Random developments of events that influence the course and results of entrepreneurship can lead not only to losses in the form of increased resource costs and a decrease in the final result. The same random event can cause an increase in the costs of one type of resource and a decrease in the costs of another type, i.e. Along with the increased costs of some resources, there may be savings in others.

So, if a random event has a double impact on the final results of a business, has unfavorable and favorable consequences, both should be taken into account equally when assessing risk. In other words, when determining the total possible losses, the accompanying gain should be subtracted from the estimated losses.

It is advisable to divide losses that may occur in business activities into material, labor, financial, time losses, and special types of losses.

Material types of losses are manifested in additional costs unforeseen by the entrepreneurial project or direct losses of equipment, property, products, raw materials, energy, etc. In relation to each individual of the listed types of losses, different units of measurement are applicable. The most natural way to measure the quantity of a given type is material resources, i.e. in physical units of weight, volume, area, etc. However, it is not possible to bring together losses measured in different units and express them in one value. You cannot add kilograms and meters. Therefore, it is almost inevitable to add kilograms and meters. Therefore, it is almost inevitable to calculate losses in value terms, in monetary units. To do this, losses in the physical dimension are converted into a cost dimension by multiplying by the unit price of the corresponding material resource.

For a fairly significant amount of material resources, the cost of which is known in advance, losses can immediately be assessed in monetary terms. Having an assessment of probable losses for each of individual species material resources in value terms, you can bring them together, while observing the rules for dealing with random variables and their probabilities.

Labor losses represent the loss of working time caused by random, unforeseen circumstances. In direct measurement, labor losses are expressed in man-hours, man-days or simply hours of working time. The translation of labor losses into value, monetary terms is carried out by multiplying labor hours by the cost (price) of one hour.

Financial losses are direct monetary damage associated with unforeseen payments, payment of fines, payment of additional taxes, loss Money And valuable papers. In addition, financial losses may occur in case of shortfall or non-receipt of money from the intended sources, in case of non-repayment of debts, non-payment by the buyer for products supplied to him, or a decrease in revenue due to a decrease in prices for products and services sold.

Special types monetary damages are associated with inflation, changes in the exchange rate of the hryvnia, additional to the legalized withdrawal of enterprise funds to the state (republican, local) budget.

Along with final, irrevocable losses, there may also be temporary financial losses caused by freezing of accounts, failure to issue funds on time, or deferment of debt payments.

Time wastage occurs when the business process is slower than planned. Direct assessment of such losses is carried out in hours, days, weeks, months of delay in the cost dimension. It is necessary to establish what losses of income and profit from business can result from accidental loss of time.

Special types of losses manifest themselves in the form of damage to the health and life of people, the environment, the prestige of the entrepreneur, as well as due to other adverse social, moral and psychological consequences. Most often, special types of losses are extremely difficult to quantify, especially in value terms.

Naturally, for each type of loss, an initial assessment of the possibility of their occurrence and magnitude should be made over a certain period of time, covering a month, a year, or the duration of the business.

When conducting comprehensive analysis of probable losses, in order to assess risk, it is important not only to identify all sources of risk, but also to identify which sources prevail.

Analyzing the types of losses listed above, it is necessary to divide the probable losses into a quantitative assessment of the level of risk. If among the losses under consideration one type is singled out, which either in magnitude or in probability of occurrence obviously suppresses the others, then when quantitatively assessing the level of risk, only this type of loss can be taken into account.

Let us assume that as a result of the preliminary analysis it was possible to “filter out” the most significant types of losses in terms of magnitude and probability of occurrence. Next, it is necessary to isolate the random components of losses and separate them from systematically recurring ones.

In principle, it is necessary to take into account only random losses that cannot be directly calculated or directly predicted and therefore not taken into account in the entrepreneurial project. If losses can be foreseen in advance, then they should not be considered as losses, but as unavoidable expenses and included in the cost estimate.

Thus, the entrepreneur must take into account the foreseeable movement of prices, taxes, and their changes in the course of business activities in the business plan.

Only due to the imperfection of the methods used for calculating entrepreneurial activity or the entrepreneur’s insufficient development of the business plan, systematic errors can be considered as losses in the sense that they can change the expected result for the worse.

Therefore, before assessing the risk caused by purely random factors, it is highly desirable to separate the systematic component of the loss from the random ones. This is also necessary from the standpoint of mathematical correctness, since the procedures for acting with random variables differ significantly from the procedures for acting with deterministic variables.

Let us now consider in somewhat more detail the structure of losses depending on the type of business activity, i.e. industrial commercial and financial entrepreneurship. Let us highlight the main manifestations. Knowledge of risk factors allows you to take early measures to reduce their effect.

Before moving on to the analysis of the manifestations of random losses in industrial, commercial, and financial entrepreneurship, we will point out some specific sources of losses and the factors influencing them.

These should include losses from the impact of unforeseen political factors. Such losses create political risk. It manifests itself in the form of unexpected changes in the conditions of economic activity caused by political considerations and events, creating an unfavorable background for the entrepreneur and thereby capable of leading to increased resource costs and loss of profit.

Typical sources of such risk are an increase in tax rates, the introduction of forced deductions, changes in contractual terms, transformation of forms and relations of ownership, alienation of property and funds for political reasons. The magnitude of possible losses and the degree of risk determined by them in this case is very difficult to foresee.

The losses caused by natural disasters, as well as theft and racketeering.

Possible losses caused by imperfect methodology and incompetence of persons forming a business plan and calculating profits and income are very specific. If, as a result of the action of these factors, the expected values ​​of profit and income from an entrepreneurial project will be overestimated, and the actual results obtained will be lower, then the difference is inevitably perceived as a loss.

Although in reality, if nominal values profits (income) were determined correctly, then the threat of such conditional losses might not have been taken into account. But when an overestimation of the estimated profit has occurred, then its “shortage” will certainly be considered damage, and the risk of such losses exists.

A special place is occupied by the entrepreneur’s losses caused by the dishonesty or insolvency of his partners. The risk of being deceived in a transaction or facing the insolvency of the debtor, the irrevocability of the debt, is, unfortunately, quite real.

Now let's look at more trivial situations of threat of loss and risk in relation to these types of entrepreneurship. Let us emphasize again: it is almost impossible to completely avoid risk, but, knowing what causes losses, an entrepreneur is able to reduce their threat, reducing the effect of an unfavorable factor.

So, let us characterize the losses, the potential of which gives rise to entrepreneurial risk.

As follows from the above definition of risk, risk is associated with the concept of loss.

Losses are considered to be a decrease in profit or income in comparison with expected values. It is the magnitude of such losses that characterizes the degree of risk. Therefore, risk analysis is associated, first of all, with the study of losses. Losses are divided into the following types:

Material losses;

Labor losses;

Financial losses;

Waste of time;

Special types of loss.

Material types losses are manifested in unforeseen additional costs or direct losses of equipment, property, products, raw materials, energy, etc. Since the units of measurement of material losses can be different, the universal form of calculating these losses is the cost expression. Labor losses represent losses of working time caused by random, unforeseen circumstances. In this case, recalculation into cost indicators is also made by multiplying the total loss of time by the cost of one hour of work. Financial losses - this is direct monetary damage associated with unforeseen payments: payment of fines; payment of additional taxes; loss of funds and securities. In addition, financial losses may occur if money is not fully received or not received from the intended sources, debts are not repaid, the buyer does not pay for products, or a decrease in revenue due to a decrease in prices for products and services sold. Special types of monetary damage are associated with inflation, changes in the exchange rate of the ruble, an increase in the tax rate, etc.

Waste of time I exist when the process of economic activity is slower than planned. Direct assessment of such losses is carried out in units of delay time in obtaining the intended result. The cost measurement of losses will be determined by loss of income.

Special types of losses manifest themselves in the form of damage to the health and life of people, the environment, the prestige of the individual of the economic manager, as well as due to other unfavorable social and moral consequences.

When conducting a comprehensive analysis of possible losses to assess risk, it is important not only to identify all sources of risk, but also to identify which sources prevail. In principle, it is necessary to take into account only random losses that cannot be directly calculated or directly predicted, and therefore not taken into account in the economic project; if losses can be foreseen in advance, then they should not be considered as losses, but as inevitable expenses and included in the calculations.

It is almost impossible to completely avoid risk, but knowing what causes losses, you can reduce their threat by reducing the effect of an unfavorable factor.

The classification (system) of risks should be understood as the distribution of risk into specific groups according to certain criteria in order to achieve set goals, i.e. effective organization of risk management.

A scientifically based risk classification allows you to clearly determine the place of each risk in their common system. It creates opportunities for the effective application of appropriate risk management methods and techniques. Each risk has its own risk management system.

Depending on the possible result(risk event), risks can be divided into two large groups (Fig. 11.1):

1. Pure risks.

2. Speculative risks.

Pure risks mean the possibility of obtaining a negative or zero result. These risks include:

Natural; environmental; political;

Transport; property; production; trading

Natural risks associated with the manifestation of natural forces: earthquakes, floods, epidemics, etc.

Environmental risks - This is environmental pollution.

Political risks associated with the political situation in the country and the activities of the state. Political risks arise when the conditions of the production and trade process are violated for reasons not directly dependent on the business entity. Political risks include:

1. Impossibility of carrying out economic activities due to military operations, revolution, aggravation of the internal political situation in the country, the introduction of an embargo, etc.

2. Introduction of a deferment (moratorium) on external payments for a certain period due to the occurrence of emergency circumstances (war, strike, etc.).

3. Unfavorable change in tax legislation caused by the political situation in the country.

Transport risks - These are risks associated with unforeseen losses when transporting goods by various modes of transport.

Commercial risks - represent the danger of losses in the process of financial and economic activities and mean the uncertainty of the results of a given commercial transaction. Based on their structural characteristics, commercial risks are divided into the following types: property, production, trade and financial.

Property risks- these are risks associated with the likelihood of loss of property of a business entity due to theft, sabotage, negligence, etc.

Production risks - risks associated with losses from production interruption due to the influence of various factors and, above all, with the loss or damage of fixed and working capital (equipment, raw materials, transport, etc.).

Trading risks - represent risks associated with loss due to delayed payments, refusal of payment, non-delivery of goods, etc.

Speculative risks expressed in the possibility of obtaining both positive and negative results. These include financial risks that are part of commercial risks (see Fig. 11.1). Financial risks are associated with the likelihood of losses financial resources. Financial risks are divided into two types:

Risks associated with the purchasing power of money;

Risks associated with investing capital (investment risks).

The risks associated with the purchasing power of money include the following types:

Inflation (deflation) risks;

Currency risks;

liquidity risk.

Inflation risk appears when inflation rises and leads to the fact that the received cash income depreciates, the losses are real. Deflationary risk - this is the risk that with the growth of deflation there is a fall in the price level, a deterioration in the economic conditions of economic activity and a decrease in income.

Currency risks mean the danger of losses associated with changes in the exchange rate of one foreign currency in relation to another, when conducting foreign economic, credit and other currency transactions.

Liquidity risk - This is a risk associated with the possibility of losses when selling securities or other goods due to changes in the assessment of their quality and consumer value.

Investment risks I include the following subtypes of risks:

Risk of lost profits;

Risk of decreased profitability;

Risk of direct financial losses.

Risk of lost profits - this is the risk of indirect (collateral) financial damage (lost profit) as a result of failure to implement any activity (for example, investing).

Risk of decreased profitability may arise as a result of a decrease in the amount of interest and dividends on portfolio investments, deposits, and loans. The risk of decreased profitability, in turn, includes the following types of risks:

Interest risks;

Credit risks.

To interest rate risks refers to the risk of loss (by commercial banks, credit organizations, investment institutions and other companies) as a result of increased interest rates, paid on borrowed funds, above the rates on loans provided.

Credit risks - This is the danger of the borrower not paying the principal and interest due to the creditors. Credit risk also refers to the risk that the issuer of a debt security will be unable to make interest or principal payments. Credit risk can also be a type of risk of direct financial loss.

The risks of direct financial losses include the following types of risks:

Exchange risk;

Selective risk;

Risk of bankruptcy.

Exchange risk represents a danger of losses from exchange transactions. This includes the risk of non-payment on commercial transactions and the risk of non-payment of commissions to the brokerage firm, and other types of risks.

Selective risk- this is the risk of incorrect choice of types of capital investment, types of securities for investment when forming an investment portfolio.

Risk of bankruptcy represents a danger of loss as a result of an incorrect choice of capital investment, complete loss equity of an economic entity and its inability to pay off its obligations.

Electricity losses in electrical networks are inevitable, so it is important that they do not exceed an economically justified level. Exceeding technological consumption standards indicates problems that have arisen. To correct the situation, it is necessary to establish the causes of non-target costs and choose ways to reduce them. The information collected in this article describes many aspects of this difficult task.

Types and structure of losses

Losses mean the difference between the electricity supplied to consumers and the energy actually received by them. To normalize losses and calculate their actual value, the following classification was adopted:

• Technological factor. It directly depends on characteristic physical processes, and can change under the influence of the load component, semi-fixed costs, as well as climatic conditions.
• Expenses spent on operating auxiliary equipment and providing necessary conditions for the work of technical staff.
• Commercial component. This category includes errors in metering devices, as well as other factors causing under-metering of electricity.

Below is an average graph of losses for a typical electric company.

As can be seen from the graph, the highest costs are associated with transmission via overhead lines (power lines), this accounts for about 64% of the total losses. In second place is the corona effect (ionization of air near the overhead line wires and, as a consequence, the occurrence of discharge currents between them) – 17%.

Based on the presented graph, it can be stated that the largest percentage of non-targeted expenses falls on the technological factor.

Main causes of electricity losses

Having understood the structure, let's move on to the reasons that cause inappropriate expenditure in each of the categories listed above. Let's start with the components of the technological factor:

1. Load losses occur in power lines, equipment and various elements of electrical networks. Such costs directly depend on the total load. This component includes:

• Losses in power lines are directly related to the current strength. That is why, when transmitting electricity over long distances, the principle of increasing it several times is used, which contributes to a proportional reduction in current and, accordingly, costs.
• Consumption in transformers of magnetic and electrical nature (). As an example, below is a table that shows cost data for substation voltage transformers in 10 kV networks.

Non-target consumption in other elements is not included in this category due to the complexity of such calculations and the insignificant amount of costs. For this, the following component is provided.

1. Category of semi-fixed expenses. It includes costs associated with the normal operation of electrical equipment, these include:

• Idle operation of power plants.
• Costs in equipment providing reactive load compensation.
• Other types of costs in various devices, the characteristics of which do not depend on the load. Examples include power insulation, metering devices in 0.38 kV networks, measuring current transformers, surge limiters, etc.

Taking into account the last factor, the energy costs for melting ice should be taken into account.

Costs for supporting the operation of substations

Costs included in this category electrical energy for functioning auxiliary devices. Such equipment is necessary for the normal operation of the main units responsible for the conversion of electricity and its distribution. Costs are recorded using metering devices. Here is a list of the main consumers belonging to this category:

• ventilation and cooling systems for transformer equipment;
• heating and ventilation of the technological room, as well as internal lighting fixtures;
• lighting of areas adjacent to substations;
• battery charging equipment;
• operational circuits and monitoring and control systems;
• outdoor equipment heating systems, such as air circuit breaker control modules;
• various types of compressor equipment;
• auxiliary mechanisms;
• equipment for repair work, communication equipment, as well as other devices.

Commercial component

These costs mean the balance between absolute (actual) and technical losses. Ideally, such a difference should tend to zero, but in practice this is not realistic. This is primarily due to the characteristics of electricity meters and electricity meters installed at end consumers. It's about error. There are a number of specific measures to reduce losses of this type.

This component also includes errors in bills issued to consumers and theft of electricity. In the first case, a similar situation may arise for the following reasons:

• the contract for the supply of electricity contains incomplete or incorrect information about the consumer;
• incorrectly indicated tariff;
• lack of control over meter data;
• errors related to previously adjusted accounts, etc.

As for theft, this problem occurs in all countries. As a rule, such illegal actions are carried out by unscrupulous household consumers. Note that sometimes incidents occur with enterprises, but such cases are quite rare, and therefore are not decisive. It is typical that the peak of thefts occurs in the cold season, and in those regions where there are problems with heat supply.

There are three methods of theft (understating meter readings):

1. Mechanical. This means appropriate intervention in the operation of the device. This can be slowing down the rotation of the disk by direct mechanical action, changing the position of the electric meter by tilting it by 45° (for the same purpose). Sometimes a more barbaric method is used, namely, the seals are broken and the mechanism is unbalanced. An experienced specialist will instantly detect mechanical interference.
2. Electric. This can be an illegal connection to an overhead line by “throwing”, a method of investing a phase of the load current, as well as the use of special devices for its full or partial compensation. In addition, there are options with shunting the current circuit of the meter or switching phase and zero.
3. Magnetic. At this method A neodymium magnet is brought to the body of the induction meter.

Almost all modern metering devices cannot be “deceived” using the methods described above. Moreover, such attempts to interfere can be recorded by the device and stored in memory, which will lead to dire consequences.

The concept of loss standard

This term means the establishment of economically sound criteria for non-target expenditure for a certain period. When standardizing, all components are taken into account. Each of them is carefully analyzed separately. As a result, calculations are made taking into account the actual (absolute) level of costs for the past period and an analysis of various opportunities that make it possible to realize the identified reserves to reduce losses. That is, the standards are not static, but are regularly revised.

Under the absolute cost level in in this case implies a balance between the transmitted electricity and technical (relative) losses. Technological loss standards are determined by appropriate calculations.

Who pays for lost electricity?

It all depends on the defining criteria. If we are talking about technological factors and costs of supporting the operation of related equipment, then payment for losses is included in the tariffs for consumers.

The situation is completely different with the commercial component; if the established loss rate is exceeded, the entire economic load is considered an expense for the company that supplies electricity to consumers.

Ways to reduce losses in electrical networks

Costs can be reduced by optimizing the technical and commercial components. In the first case, the following measures should be taken:

• Optimization of the circuit and operating mode of the electrical network.
• Study of static stability and identification of powerful load nodes.
• Reduction of total power due to the reactive component. As a result, the share of active power will increase, which will have a positive impact on the fight against losses.
• Transformer load optimization.
• Equipment modernization.
• Various load balancing methods. For example, this can be done by introducing a multi-tariff payment system, in which during peak load hours the cost of kW/h is increased. This will significantly reduce the consumption of electricity during certain periods of the day; as a result, the actual voltage will not “sag” below acceptable standards.

You can reduce your business costs by:

• regular search for unauthorized connections;
• creation or expansion of units exercising control;
• checking readings;
• automation of data collection and processing.

Methodology and example for calculating electricity losses

In practice, the following methods are used to determine losses:

• carrying out operational calculations;
• daily criterion;
• calculation of average loads;
• analysis of the greatest losses of transmitted power by day and hour;
• access to generalized data.

Full information on each of the methods presented above can be found in regulatory documents.

In conclusion, we give an example of calculating costs in a TM 630-6-0.4 power transformer. The calculation formula and its description are given below; it is suitable for most types of similar devices.

Calculation of losses in a power transformer

To understand the process, you should familiarize yourself with the main characteristics of TM 630-6-0.4.

Now let's move on to the calculation.