Chemical industry and chemical technologies. Chemical Technology Examples of Application of Modern Chemical Technologies

For a long time, the goods necessary for everyday demand (food, clothing, paints) were produced by processing predominantly natural raw materials of plant origin. Modern chemical technologies make it possible to synthesize from raw materials not only natural, but also artificial origin, numerous and diverse in their properties, not inferior to natural analogues. The potential of the chemical transformations of natural substances is truly limitless. All increasing flows of natural raw materials: oil, gas, coal, mineral salts, silicates, ores, etc. - turn into paints, varnishes, soap, mineral fertilizers, engine fuel, plastics, artificial fibers, plant protection products, biologically active substances, medicines and various raw materials for the production of other necessary and valuable substances.

The pace of scientific and technical development of chemical technologies is rapidly growing. If in the middle of the XIX century. On the industrial development of the electrochemical process of obtaining aluminum it took 35 years, then in the 50s of the XX century. Low-scale polyethylene production at low pressure has been established in less than 4 years. At large enterprises of developed countries, approximately 25% of working capital is spent on research work, the development of new technologies and materials, which makes it possible to significantly update the range of products in approximately 10 years. In many countries, industrial enterprises produce about 50% of products, which has not been produced 20 years ago. At some advanced enterprises, its share reaches 75-80%.

The development of new chemicals is a time consuming and expensive process. For example, for finding and synthesizing only a few drugs suitable for industrial production, it is necessary to make at least 4,000 varieties of substances. For plant protection products, this figure can reach both 10,000. In the nearby past in the United States, a chemical product has accounted for approximately 450 research developments, from which only 98 was selected for experienced production. After pilot tests, only no more than 50% of selected products found wide practical application. However, the practical significance of the products obtained in such complex means is so large that the costs of research and development pays off very quickly.

Thanks to the successful interaction of chemists, physicists, mathematicians, biologists, engineers and other specialists, new developments appear, providing an impressive increase in the production of chemical products in the last decade, as evidenced by the following numbers. If the overall production of products in the world in 10 years (1950-1960) increased by about 3 times, then the amount of chemical products during the same period increased 20 times. Over the ten-year period (1961- 1970), the average annual increase in industrial products in the world was 6.7%, and chemical - 9.7%. In the 70s, the increase in chemical products, which makes up about 7%, ensured its increase in roughly twice. It is assumed that with such growth rates by the end of this century, the chemical industry will take the first place to produce products.

Chemical technologies and related industrial production covers all the most important areas of the national economy, including various sectors of the economy. The interaction of chemical technologies and various areas of activity of people are conditionally represented in Fig. 6.1, where the designations are introduced: BUT - chemical and textile industry, pulp and paper and light industry, production of glass and ceramics, production of various materials, construction, mining, metallurgy; B. - machine and instrument making, electronics and electrical engineering, communications, military, rural and forestry, food industry, environmental protection, health care, household, media; IN - increasing labor productivity, saving materials, advances in health care; G. - improvement of working conditions and life, rationalization of mental labor; D. - health, food, clothes, rest; E. - housing, culture, education, education, environmental protection, defense.

We give several examples of the application of chemical technologies. For the production of modern computers, integrated circuits are needed, the manufacturing technology of which is based on the use of silicon. However, there are no silicon in nature in a chemically pure form. But in large quantities there are silicon dioxide in the form of sand. Chemical technologies allow ordinary sand to turn into elemental silicon. Another characteristic example. Automobile transport burns a huge amount of fuel. What needs to be done to achieve minimal contamination of the atmosphere by exhaust gases? Partially such a problem is solved with the help of a car catalytic exhaust gas converter. The radical solution is provided by the use of chemical technologies, namely, chemical manipulations over the initial raw materials - crude oil, processed into purified products, are effectively combined in car engines.

A significant part of the population of the globe is directly or indirectly related to chemical technologies. So, by the end of the 80s of the XX century. Only in one country - the United States - in the chemical industry and related industries, more than 1 million people were employed, including over 150,000 scientists and engineers and technologists. In those years in the United States sold chemical products by about 175-180 billion dollars per year.

Chemical technologies and related industry are forced to respond to the desire of society to preserve the environment. Depending on the political atmosphere, such a desire can vary from reasonable caution to panic. In any case, the economic investigation is the rise in prices for products due to the cost of achieving the desired goal of preserving the environment, to ensure the safety of working personnel, on evidence of the harmlessness and effectiveness of new products, etc. Of course, all these costs pays the consumer and they significantly reflect on competitiveness of products.

Submit interest some figures relating to the products manufactured and consumed. In the early 70s of the XX century. The average city dweller used in everyday life 300-500 diverse chemical products, of which about 60 are in the form of textile products, approximately 200 - in everyday life, in the workplace and during rest, approximately 50 medicines and the same food and cooking products. The technology of manufacturing some foods includes up to 200 different chemical processes.

About ten years ago, there were more than 1 million varieties of products produced by the chemical industry. By that time, the total number of known chemical compounds was more than 8 million, including about 60 thousand inorganic compounds. Today more than 18 million chemical compounds are known. In all laboratories of our planet, 200-250 new chemical compounds are synthesized daily. Synthesis of new substances depends on the perfection of chemical technologies and largely on the effectiveness of chemical transformation management.

1. 1. Introduction3
2. 2. Chemical industry3
3. 3. Chemical technology7.
4. 4. Conclusion8.

List of references9

Introduction

The chemical industry is the second after the electronic leading industry industry, which most quickly ensures the introduction of scientific and technological progress in all areas of the economy and contributes to the acceleration of the development of productive forces in each country. The peculiarity of the modern chemical industry is the orientation of the main high-tech industries (pharmaceutical, polymeric materials, reagents and especially clean substances), as well as products of perfumery and cosmetic, household chemicals, etc. To ensure the daily needs of man and his health.

The development of the chemical industry led to the process of chemicalization of the national economy. It implies the widespread widespread use of industry products, the full introduction of chemical processes in different industries. Such industry industries such as oil refining, thermal energy (except nuclear power plants), cellulose and paper, black and non-ferrous metallurgy, semi-level of building materials (cement, brick, etc.), as well as many food industry production based on use - The chemical processes of changing the structures of the original thing. At the same time, they often need the products of the checkered industry itself, i.e. Thereby stimulate its accelerated development.

Chemical industry

Chemical industry - industry, including production of products from hydrocarbon, mineral and other raw materials by its chemical processing. The gross amount of production of the chemical industry in the world is about 2 trillion. Doll. The volume of industrial production of the chemical and petrochemical industry in Russia in 2004 amounted to 528156 million rubles.

The chemical industry has been separated into a separate industry with the beginning of an industrial coup. The first plants for the production of sulfuric acid are the most important of mineral acids used by the person, were built in 1740 (United Kingdom, Richmond), in 1766 (France, Rouen), in 1805 (Russia, Moscow region), in 1810 (Germany, Leipzig). To ensure the needs of the developing textile and glass industry, the production of soda calcined. The first soda factories appeared in 1793 (France, Paris), in 1823 (United Kingdom, Liverpool), in 1843 (Germany, Schönebeek-on-Elbe), in 1864 (Russia, Barnaul). With development in the middle of the XIX century. Agriculture appeared plants of artificial fertilizers: in 1842 in the UK, in 1867 in Germany, in 1892 in Russia.

Raw materials, early occurrence of the industry contributed to the formation of Great Britain, as the world leader in chemical production, throughout the three quarters of the XIX century. From the end of the XIX century. With the growing need of economies in organic substances, Germany becomes the leader in the chemical industry. Due to the rapid process of concentration of production, a high level of scientific and technical development, the active trade policy of Germany by the beginning of the XX century. Conquered the global market for chemical products. In the US, the chemical industry began to develop later than in Europe, but by 1913 in the volume of the production of chemical products, the United States occupied and since then hold 1st place in the world among states. This is facilitated by the richest reserves of mineral resources, a developed transport network, a powerful domestic market. Only by the end of the 80s, the Chemical Industry of the EU countries generally exceeded the volume of production in the United States.

Table 1

Supplies of chemical industry

All marked specific features of the chemical industry are currently a great influence on the structure of the industry. The chemical industry increases the proportion of high-cost high-currency products. Obtaining many types of mass production that requires pain, the costs of raw materials, energy, water and unsafe for the environment, stabilizes or even reduced. However, the processes of structural restructuring go differently in individual groups of the states and regions. This has a noticeable impact on the geography of those or other groups of production in the world.

The greatest impact on the development of the economy of the world and the conditions of the daily life of human society was provided in the second half of the XX century. Polymer materials, products of their processing.

Industry of polymeric materials. On it and the production of the original types of hydrocarbons, semi-products, from 30 to 45% of the cost of production of the chemical industries of developed countries of the world. This is the basis of the entire industry, its core, closely connected with almost all chemical production. Raw materials for the production of source hydrocarbons, intermediates and polymers themselves are mainly oil, passing and natural gas. Their consumption for the production of this wide range of products is relatively small: only 5-6% of oil produced in the world and 5-6% natural gas.

Industry plastics and synthetic resins. Synthetic resins are mainly going to obtain chemical fibers, and plastics are most often the initial structural mothers. This predetermines the use of them in many areas of industry, construction, as well as products from them to everyday life. Most of the species of plastics, even more their brands were created in recent decades. A whole class of pro-consuming plastics is allocated for the most responsible products in the machine-nominations (fluoroplastics, etc.).

The chemical fiber industry revolutionized the entire light industry. In the 30s. The role of chemical fibers in the structure of textile was insignificant: 30% of them were wool, about 70% - cotton and other fibers of plant origin. Chemical Ways are increasingly used for technical purposes. The sphere of their application in the economy and household consumption is continuously growing.

Industry of synthetic rubber. The demand for rubber products in the world (alone of automotive tires is produced annually 1 billion) increasingly provide the use of synthetic rubber. It accounts for 2/3 of the entire production of natural and synthetic rubbers. The final of the latter has a number of advantages (less costs of funds on the construction of plants than on the creation of plantations; less labor costs for its factory receipt; lower price compared with natural rubber, etc.). Therefore, its release has developed in more than 30 states.

Mineral fertilizer industry. The use of nitrogen, phosphate and potash fertilizers largely determines the level of development of agriculture of countries and regions. Mineral fertilizers are the most massive products of the chemical industry.

The pharmaceutical industry acquires extremely important for the health of the magnifying population of the planet. The growing need for its products is due to:

1) the rapid aging of the population, primarily in many pro-consistent states of the world, which requires the introduction of new complexic drugs to therapeutic practice;

2) an increase in cardiovascular and oncological diseases, as well as the emergence of new diseases (AIDS), and more efficient drugs are required to combat components;

3) creating new generations of drugs due to the adaptation of microorganisms to the old forms.

Rubber industries. Products of this industry are increasingly focused on ensuring the needs of the population.

In addition to the many household rubber products (rugs, toys, hoses, shoes, balls, etc.), which have become ordinary consumer goods, growing demand for components of rubber parts for very many types of engineering products. This includes terrestrial fire-free vehicles: Tires for a car, bike, tractors, aircraft chassis, etc. Rubber products such as pipelines, gaskets, insulators and others are necessary for many types of products. This explains the vast assortment of rubber products (it exceeds 0.5 million items).

Among the most massive products of the industry is highlighted production of tires (tires) for different types of transport. The release of these things is determined by the number of transportatives manufactured in the world, calculated by many dozen million units of each of them. 3/4 natural and synthetic rubbers are consumed to produce tires, a significant part of synthetic fibers going on the production of cord fabric - tire frame. In addition, for obtaining rubber as a filler, various types of soot are also a product of one of the industries of the Children's industry - Sazheva. All this defines the close relationship of the rubber industry with other sectors of checkered.

The level of development of the economy of the country can be judged by the level of development of the chemical industry. It supplies the farm with raw materials and materials, makes it possible to apply new technological processes in all branches of the economy. The intra-industry composition of the chemical industry is very complicated:

1) basic chemistry

2) Chemistry of organic synthesis.

Pharmaceutics, photochemistry, household chemicals, perfumery belong to fine chemistry and can use both organic and inorganic raw materials. Inter-sectoral connections of the chemical industry are extensive - there is no such branch of the economy with which it would not be connected. Scientific Complex, Electric Power Industry, Metallurgy, Fuel Industry, Light Industry - Chemistry - Textile Industry, Agriculture, Food Industry, Construction, Mechanical Engineering, MIC. The chemical industry can use a variety of raw materials: oil, gas, coal, forest, minerals, even air. Consequently, chemical enterprises can be located everywhere. Geography of the chemical industry is extensive: the production of potash fertilizers to areas of raw materials production, the production of nitrogen fertilizers - to the consumer, the production of plastics, polymers, fibers, rubber - to the areas of oil raw materials processing areas. The chemical industry is one of the advanced industries of the scientific and technical revolution, along with engineering this is the most dynamic industry of the modern industry.

The main features of accommodation are similar to the features of the placement of mechanical engineering; In the global chemical industry there are 4 main regions. The largest of them is Western Europe. A specially rapid pace in many countries in the region, the chemical industry began to develop after World War II, when the branch began to lead the petrochemistry. As a result, the centers of petrochemicals and oil refining are located in seaports and on the tracks of trunk oil pipelines.

The second value of the region is the United States, where the chemical industry is characterized by a large variety. The main factor in the placement of enterprises was the raw material factor, which largely contributed to the territorial concentration of chemical industries. The third region is Eastern and Southeast Asia, Japan plays a particularly important role (with powerful petrochemicals based on imported oil). The significance of China and new industrial countries also grow, which specialize in the production of synthetic products and semi-finished products.

The fourth region is the CIS countries that have a diverse chemical industry oriented both in commodity and energy factor.

Chemical Technology

Chemical technology is a science of processes and methods of chemical processing of raw materials and intermediate products.

It turns out that all processes associated with the processing and receiving substances, despite their external diversity, are divided into several related, single-type groups, similar devices are used in each of them. Total groups 5 are chemical, hydromechanical, thermal, mass transfer and mechanical processes.

In any chemical production, we meet all or almost all of the listed processes at the same time. Consider, for example, the technological scheme in which the product is obtained from two source liquid components A and B by reaction: A + B-s.

The initial components pass through the filter in which they are cleaned of solid particles. Then the pump is then fed to the reactor, preheating to the reaction temperature in the heat exchanger. Reaction products that include components and impurities unreacted components are sent to the separation into the distillation column. The height of the column takes place a multiple exchange of components between the flowing fluid and the pairs rising from the boiler. At the same time, the pairs are enriched with components having a smaller boiling point than the product. Coming from the top of the column of the components are condensed in a reflux. Part of the condensate returns to the reactor, and the other part (phlegm) is sent to irrigation of the distillation column. The pure product is derived from the boiler, coolant to normal temperature in the heat exchanger.

The establishment of regularities of each of the groups of chemical technology processes has opened the green light in front of the chemical industry. After all, now the calculation of any, the newest chemical production is performed according to the well-known techniques and almost always can be used serially produced devices.

The rapid development of chemical technology has become the basis for the chemicalization of the national economy of our country. New branches of chemical production are created, and the main thing, the processes and devices of chemical technology are widely introduced into other sectors of the national economy and in life. They underlie the production of fertilizers, building materials, gasoline and synthetic fibers. Any modern production, no matter what it produces - cars, airplanes or children's toys, it does not cost without chemical technology.

One of the most interesting tasks that can be solved with the help of chemical technology in the near future is the use of worldwide resources. The water of the ocean contains almost all the elements necessary for a person. It dissolves 5.5 million tons of gold and 4 billion tons of uranium, huge amounts of iron, manganese, magnesium, tin, lead, silver and other elements whose reserves are depleted. But for this it is necessary to create completely new processes and devices of chemical technology.

Conclusion

Chemical industry, like mechanical engineering, is one of the most difficult industries in its structure. It is clearly distinguished by semi-product industries (main chemistry, organic chemistry), basic (polymeric materials - plastics and synthetic resins, chemical fibers, synthetic rubber, mine-rally fertilizers), processing (synthetic dyes of varnishes and paints, pharmaceutical, Photochemical, reagents, chemistry, rubber products). The range of its products is about 1 million items, species, types, product stamps.

Chemical technology - science on the most economical and environmentally appropriate methods and means of processing raw natural materials in consumption and intermediate products.

It is divided into technology of inorganic substances (production of acids, alkalis, soda, silicate materials, mineral fertilizers, salts, etc.) and organic substance technology (synthetic rubber, plastics, dyes, alcohols, organic acids, etc.);

Bibliography

1. 1. Doronin A. A. New opening of American chemists. / Kommersant, №56, 2004
   1. 2. Kilimnik A. B. Physical chemistry: Tutorial. Tambov: Publishing House Tamb. State tehn University, 2005. 80 p.
   2. 3. Kim A.M., Organic Chemistry, 2004
      1. 4. Perepelkin K. E. Polymer composites based on chemical fibers, their main species, properties and application / technical textiles No. 13, 2006
   3. 5. Purse V.F. Organic Chemistry: Textbook for universities in 2 volumes. - M.: Academkniga, 2004. - T.1. - 727 p., T.2. - 582 p.

Each teacher wants his subject to cause deep interest among schoolchildren, so that students know not only to write chemical formulas and the equations of reactions, but also to understand the chemical picture of the world, able to logically think that every lesson was a holiday, a small representation, delivering joy and disciples and teacher. We are accustomed that the teacher tells at the lesson, and the student listens and assimilates. Play ready-made information is one of the most inefficient ways of teaching. Knowledge cannot be transferred from the head to the head mechanically (heard - learned). It seems to many that you just need to make a disciple and the matter will immediately go to the way. However, a student, like any person, is endowed with freedom of will, with which it is impossible not to be considered. Therefore, it is impossible to break this natural law and subordinate to themselves even for good purposes. The desired result is impossible to achieve on this path.

From here it follows that it is necessary to make an active partner of the educational process from the student. The student may assign information only in its own activity in interest to the subject. Therefore, the teacher needs to forget about the role of an informant, he must fulfill the role of the educational activities of the student.

Various activities can be distinguished on the development of the new material by the student: material, materialized and intellectual. Under material activity understands activities with the object of study. For chemistry, such an object is a substance, i.e. Material activities in chemistry lessons are experiments. Experiments can conduct students or demonstrate the teacher.

Materialized activities are activities with material models, formulas, tabular, digital, graphic material, etc. Chemistry is activities with material models of molecules, crystalline lattices, chemical formulas, solving chemical problems, comparison of physical quantities characterizing studied substances. Any external activity (activities with hands) is reflected in the brain, i.e. Enters the inside plan, in intellectual activity. Conducting experiments by constituting the chemical formulas and equations, making digital material, the student makes the conclusions, systematizes facts, establishes certain relationships, conducts analogy, etc.

So, the teacher must organize all types of educational and cognitive activities in the student's lesson. It is necessary that the educational and cognitive activities of the student correspond to that by educational material that must be absorbed. It is necessary that as a result of activities, the student independently came to any conclusions to make knowledge for himself.

The most important principle of didactics is the principle of independent creation of knowledge, which is that the knowledge of the student does not work in the finished form, and it is contemplated by him as a result of a certain cognitive activity organized by a teacher.

An independent discovery of the slightest grades of knowledge by the student gives him great pleasure, allows you to feel your opportunities, elevates it in your own eyes. The student collaborates as a person. This positive range of emotions, the schoolboy stores in memory, seeks to survive again and again. So there is an interest not just to the subject, and what is more valuable to the very process of knowledge - cognitive interest. The development of cognitive and creative interests among students contributes to various types of technologies: computer technology, problem and research technology, game learning technology, testing tests.

1. Computer technology

The use of a computer and multimedia technologies give positive results when explaining a new material, modeling various situations, when collecting the necessary information, when evaluating the zone, etc., and also allow you to implement such training methods such as: Business Games, Problems Decision Exercises , Presentations and so on. Computer technology makes it possible to have such a volume of information that do not own teachers based on traditional learning methods. In multimedia training programs, animations and sound maintenance are used, which, acting at once a few information channels of the student, increase perception, make it easier to assimilate and memorize the material. In their lessons I use various programs on CDs that help me to explain the new or repetition of old topics, consolidate and systematize the knowledge gained. An example of one lesson. Topic: "Subgroup of oxygen, characteristic. Getting oxygen. In the course of the lesson, the multimedia projector was used, where the experiments were shown on the screen, which cannot be demonstrated in the school laboratory. Also, several tables were designed on the screen. The guys were assumed to analyze, compare and conclude. From the foregoing, we conclude that the computer technology increases the level of learning and causes interest to students to the subject.

2. Problem technology

The technology of problem learning implies the creation under the leadership of the teacher of problem situations and active independent activities of students by resolution, resulting in creative mastering knowledge, skills, skills and development of mental abilities. Problem situations in the lesson may arise the most unexpected way. For example, in the 8th grade, when studying the theme "Electricity", the student asked the question: "Hydrogen gives electrons lithium or vice versa?" Odnoklassniki replied that the electrons give lithium, as he had a radius of an atom more. Immediately another student asked: "What then will the hydrogen turn into?" Opinions were divided: Some considered that the hydrogen atom, the addition of the electron, turned into an atom of helium, since he had two electrons, and others did not agree with this, objection that helium had a kernel charge +2, and in this particle +1. So what is this particle? There was a problem situation that can be resolved by reading the concept of ions. A problem of the lesson can create a teacher himself. An example of a lesson. Topic: "Simple and sophisticated substances." The teacher provides a student with a wide field of activity: Specifies problematic issues, proposes from the list of various substances to write separately simple and complex substances and faces the student himself, using his life experience, the knowledge of previous lessons, tried to formulate the concept of a simple and complex substance. The student makes knowledge himself for himself, so there is an interest not just to the subject, but to the very process of knowledge.

3. Research Technology

Schoolchildren's research activities are a set of search nature actions leading to the discovery of unknown facts, theoretical knowledge and ways of activity. In this way, students get acquainted with the basic methods of research in chemistry, master the skills independently get new knowledge, constantly turning to theory. Attracting the reference knowledge to solve problematic situations involves the formation and improvement of both general educational and special skills of students (conduct chemical experiments, relate observed phenomena with changes in the state of molecules, atoms, ions, to conduct a mental chemical experiment, model the essence of processes, etc.) . The study can be carried out in order to obtain new knowledge, generalizations, acquisition of skills, apply the knowledge gained, studying specific substances, phenomena, processes. Thus, when studying the topic of "nitric acid salts" in the 9th grade I use elements of research. The study includes: conducting theoretical analysis; prediction of the methods of obtaining substances and their properties; drawing up an experimental inspection plan and its implementation; Formulation of output. The logical chain is obtained: Theoretical Analysis - Forecasting - Experiment. Michael Faraday said: "No science needs an experiment to such an extent as chemistry. Its basic laws, theories and conclusions are based on facts. Therefore, constant control of experience is needed. " For systematization of the knowledge gained, students fill in the table:

Nitric acid salts

The research work of students takes more time at the lesson than performing the tasks for the sample. However, time spent subsequently compensated by the fact that students quickly and correctly perform tasks, they can independently study the new material. In addition, the awareness and strength of their knowledge increases, a steady interest in the subject appears.

4. Gaming Technology

Intellectual and creative games (ITI) stimulate the development of cognitive interests of students, contribute to the development of their intellectual and creative abilities, make it possible to assert and realize themselves in the intellectual and creative sphere through the game, help to fill the shortage of communication. ITI can be used not only in extracurricular and extracurricular work, but also in the lessons (when studying a new material, repetition passed, monitoring knowledge of students, etc.)

The most complex and time-consuming business and role-playing games. Conducting such games allows you to achieve the following goals: to teach students to allocate the main thing in the content of the educational material, to state it in a brief form; Develop text analysis skills, associative thinking, independence of judgments, contribute to the self-determination of students, develop communicative abilities, expand the horizons, repeat and summarize the material studied. In my practice, I systematically use the game forms of the organization of knowledge control and constantly notice how it increases the interest of students to studied material and the subject in general, as students who have recently read so little, suddenly begin to flip books, reference books, encyclopedia. So in the lessons, when studying the ecology related, such as the topic "natural sources of hydrocarbons and their processing", apply role-playing games using expert groups. The class is divided into two groups: "specialists" and "journalists". The first grate material and prepare a visual allowance. The second is preparing the questions they must ask during the game.

To secure materials in 8 - 9 classes I use didactic games: "Chemical cubes", "Chemical lotto", "Cross-tick-ticks", "Find a mistake", "chemical battle." Also on extracurricular activities, I spend spectacular intellectual-creative games: "KVN", "What, where, when", "Star Hour".

5. Using tests in chemistry lessons

The use of tests in chemistry lessons also occupies a prominent place in the process of introducing new technologies. What makes it possible to mass test knowledge of students. Test method - a universal means of checking knowledge, skills. Tests are an economical targeted and individual form of control. Systematic testing of knowledge in the form of tests contributes to the durable absorption of the educational subject, brings up a conscious attitude to study, forms accuracy, hard work, purposefulness, activates attention, develops the ability to analyze. With test control, equal values \u200b\u200bare provided for all studied conditions, that is, the objectivity of the knowledge test increases. This method makes a variety of learning work, increases interest in the subject. Final tests in 8 - 10 classes I spend in the form of a test.

 increase the unit power of nodes and aggregates

The need to increase unit power of nodes is associated with an increase in the need for products and restriction of areas for accommodating equipment. With increasing capacity, capital gains and depreciation deductions per unit of finished products are reduced. The number of service personnel is reduced, which leads to a reduction in the wage fund and an increase in labor productivity. An increase in unit power of nodes is most characteristic of continuous multi-duct industries. In the case of the production of pharmaceutical and cosmetics, this is not a determining factor in most cases.

 Development of environmentally friendly technologies that reduce or eliminate environmental pollution by production waste (creation of waste-free technologies)

This is a very important problem, especially for industries associated with chemical transformations of substances, in particular in the production of biologically active substances and substances included in the final graduation forms. At the same time, in the event of the direct production of drugs and cosmetic products, the problem of waste is not so important. This is due to the fact that, in essence, these production should be non-frequensed, and the formation of waste is possible only in violation of the technological regulation.

 Using combined technological schemes

This problem is very important in organizing the production of low-tonnage products. For low-tonnage production, in particular for the industry of fine organic synthesis, a very large range of products is characteristic. At the same time, a number of products can be carried out using similar technological methods on the same technological scheme. The same is also in the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetic drugs, when similar graduation forms (tablets, creams, solutions) of various names can be made on the same technological scheme.

 Improving the energy efficiency of production

In the case of the production of pharmaceutical and cosmetic drugs, this problem does not matter much, since in the overwhelming majority of cases, the processes proceed at room temperature and do not have a high thermal effect.

The next important issue we should consider from the point of view of the general issues of the organization of production are the conditions affecting the selection of the hardware processing of the chemical and technological process and the method of organizing the process.

1.2.3. Conditions affecting the choice of hardware processing of the chemical process

The quality of the target product is determined by strict compliance with the norms of the technological regulation and the competent choice of the main equipment necessary for the sale of production. Under the main equipment implies the equipment in which the main technological stages are undergoing: chemical reactions, the preparation of the original components, the production of target finite products, etc. The rest of the equipment that is necessary to ensure the technological process is auxiliary. Thus, the first task that needs to be solved in the organization of production is the choice of technological equipment. This choice is determined by a number of conditions, some of which are shown below.

 Temperature and thermal process effect

Determine the selection of the coolant and the design of the elements of the heat exchange surface.

 Pressure

Determines the material of the apparatus and the design features of equipment for mechanical strength.

 Wednesday process

Determines the selection of the machine material from the point of view of corrosion stability and the method of protection against corrosion. In the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetic agents to choose from the material of the apparatus, the requirements for the quality of the final product are provided, especially on the content of metal impurities and organic compounds.

 Aggregate state of reacting substances

Determines the method of organizing the process (periodic or continuous), the method of loading the source components and unloading finite products, the design of the mixing devices.

 Kinetics of the process

Determines the method of organizing the process and type of equipment.

 Method of organizing the process

Determines the choice of type of equipment.

, petrochemical industry, power engineering, transport, military equipment and many others.

Chemical technologies in historical development

When considering the development of the Chemical Technology of the XX century, especially after the First World War, some characteristic, specific features can be opened. It is known that 99.5% of the earth's crust consists of 14 chemical elements: oxygen, silicon, carbon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, hydrogen, titanium, phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur. However, despite the mass spread of many of these elements, they were not drawn into the orbit of the chemical industry in the XIX century. This equally applies to Fectour, titanium, chlorine, magnesium, aluminum and hydrogen.

For chemical technology XX century. Characteristically appeal to these most common elements. Hydrogen is currently the bread of modern chemistry. Synthesis ammonia, synthesis of alcohols, synthesis of liquid fuel, etc. Every year requires the production of billion cubic meters of hydrogen. The widespread involvement of hydrogen into chemical production is the characteristic feature of the chemistry of the XX century.

Of great importance in modern technique acquires chemistry of silicon and, in particular, the chemistry of silicone compounds. The chemistry of titanium, chlorine, magnesium, potassium, aluminum also acquires exceptional importance. At the same time, the chemical technology, especially in connection with the development of atomic and reactive techniques, seeks to use the most rare and scattered elements of the earth's crust, which are the most important basis for the XX century.

The basis of organic synthesis of the XIX century. There was a coal resin, obtained by coal coal. In the XX century, this raw material is inferior to the simple and easily accessible gases obtained from a wide range of solid fuels, ranging from peat, low-grade brown coal and ending with anthracite and coke. In large scale, gases obtained in the extraction and processing of oil are used. During the XX century. Natural fossil gases are all wider (Fig. 1).

Rice1. Products derived from natural gas (methane).

Thus, if in the XIX century. The basis of the chemical industry was a coal resin, then in the first half of the XX century. The main raw material base of the industry of organic synthesis becomes coal and oil and gases obtained: hydrogen, carbon monoxide, richest gamma hydrocarbons and a number of other materials. Nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, carbon monoxide, methane, acetylene, ethylene and some other gases are the main raw material base of modern chemistry. Consequently, the characteristic feature of the latest chemical technology is the use of common elements previously used in an insignificant scale, and the transformation of their aspect of modern chemical technology, as well as widespread use as chemical raw materials of solid fuel, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons.

A characteristic feature of chemical technology is also the use of rare elements associated, in particular, with the requirements of atomic technology. Chemistry largely contributes to the development of nuclear technology, giving it various materials - metals (uranium, lithium, etc.), heavy water, hydrogen, plastics, etc.

It should be noted that one of the features of modern chemistry is the requirement for the purity of the products produced. The impurities contained in the source substances often adversely affect the properties of the product obtained. Therefore, in recent times, very clean starting materials (monomers) containing at least 99.8-99.9% of the main substance are increasingly used in the chemical industry. A characteristic feature of modern chemical technology is that new impact methods become on its weapon; Especially important are the use of high pressures from a few hundred to 1500-2000 and above atmospheres, deep vacuum (up to thousands of atmospheric), high temperatures up to several thousand degrees, the use of deep cold (low temperatures close to absolute zero), as well as the use of electrical discharges , ultrasound, radioactive emissions, etc. It is natural that increasing the technical level of chemical production in general, and therefore the rapid development of the organic synthesis industry in particular is provided with the supply of the chemical industry with modern, high-performance equipment, appropriate devices and machines.

Initially, the production of basic equipment for ammonia synthesis was mastered. Synthesis columns, separators, water and ammonia scrubbers for cleaning gases from carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as well as centrifuges, vacuum filters, autoclaves for volcanization of rubber, presses for plastics, deep cooling press, etc. Starting from the 20s, the powerful oil gases were acquired, highly efficient distillation and adsorption equipment, high-pressure compressors and reactors, refrigeration units, etc. The main trend of modern chemistry is the desire to design a molecular structure of the substance in accordance with oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, oxide Carbon, methane, acetylene, ethylene and some other gases are the main raw material base of modern chemistry.

Consequently, the characteristic feature of the latest chemical technology is the use of common elements previously used in an insignificant scale, and the transformation of their aspect of modern chemical technology, as well as widespread use as chemical raw materials of solid fuel, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons.

A characteristic feature of chemical technology is also the use of rare elements associated, in particular, with the requirements of atomic technology. Chemistry largely contributes to the development of nuclear technology, giving it various materials - metals (uranium, lithium, etc.), heavy water, hydrogen, plastics, etc.

It should be noted that one of the features of modern chemistry is the requirement for the purity of the products produced. The impurities contained in the source substances often adversely affect the properties of the product obtained. Therefore, in recent times, very clean starting materials (monomers) containing at least 99.8-99.9% of the main substance are increasingly used in the chemical industry. A characteristic feature of modern chemical technology is that new impact methods become on its weapon; Especially important are the use of high pressures from a few hundred to 1500-2000 and above atmospheres, deep vacuum (up to thousands of atmospheric), high temperatures up to several thousand degrees, the use of deep cold (low temperatures close to absolute zero), as well as the use of electrical discharges , ultrasound, radioactive emissions, etc. It is natural that increasing the technical level of chemical production in general, and therefore the rapid development of the organic synthesis industry in particular is provided with the supply of the chemical industry with modern, high-performance equipment, appropriate devices and machines. Initially, the production of basic equipment for ammonia synthesis was mastered. Synthesis columns, separators, water and ammonia scrubbers for cleaning gases from carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as well as centrifuges, vacuum filters, autoclaves for volcanization of rubber, presses for plastics, deep cooling press, etc. Starting from the 20s, powerful oil gas separation settings, highly efficient distillation and adsorption equipment, high-pressure compressors and reactors, refrigeration units, etc. The main trend of modern chemistry is the desire to design a molecular structure of a substance in accordance with predetermined properties. Synthesis of substances with predetermined properties in modern chemistry is not blind, but on the basis of a deep study of the laws of formation of molecules. Therefore, a number of new sections of chemical science receive great development.

Essentially, from random searches and finds, chemistry since the 1920s has moved to a systematic replacement and displacement of natural scarce materials by materials, as well as not only inferior, but, on the contrary, superior to these natural materials. For example, the Chilean Natural Nature was ousted by synthetic nitrogen compounds. Synthetic rubber in terms of its qualities is not inferior to rubber natural. In recent years, some researchers work on a raised quality is not synthetic, but a natural rubber so that it can compete with some special types of synthetic rubbers. Big successes are achieved in the field of artificial fiber synthesis, the production of which has some few decades.

Since the 1920s, natural foods will be pushed aside and the synthetic products come to the quality of them in their place. This is a completely natural process. The fact is that chemical methods of processing of the substance, the introduction of chemical processes into production leads to a strong reduction in production time and to a significant reduction in labor costs, and at the same time and to obtain higher quality products than natural products. So, if the release of 1 tons of artificial viscose staple fiber requires 70 people-days, then 238 people spend on the production of 1 tons of cotton fiber. In the production of viscose silk, labor costs are approximately 10 times less than in the production of natural silk. Upon receipt of 1 tons of ethyl alcohol (necessary for the production of a number of synthetic products) from oil raw materials, labor costs compared to the production of this alcohol from food raw materials decrease in 20-22 times. However, the following data is made in the field of synthesis of new substances, the following data . Currently, 100 thousand inorganic chemical compounds in nature, the number of well-known organic substances, natural and artificial, exceeded three million and continues to grow rapidly. Only industrially mastered compounds obtained on the basis of oil are 10 thousand items. Along with the creation of new synthetic materials, there is a continuous process of improving the quality of the already existing substances produced by the industry. Finally, the principal possibility of artificially obtaining natural compounds of any complexity is currently proved. It is not far that time when in the laboratories of chemists-organic, various types of complex protein substances, which are the basis of life will be synthesized.

A characteristic feature of modern technology is that it develops on the basis of the widest use of electricity. Moreover, if earlier the steam machine only to some extent gave the technological "raw materials" for the chemical industry in the form of steam and heat, then electricity becomes an essential element of peculiar technological "raw materials" for such, for example, processes as electrolysis.

For the production of ammonia, a hydrogen and nitrogen obtained by electrolysis of water and air nitrogen, it is necessary to spend about 12 thousand kWh electricity. For the manufacture of synthetic rubber based on ethylene, about 15 thousand kWh is consumed, and for some other types of rubber - 17 thousand kWh and even more. 20 thousand kWh, phosphorus tons of phosphorus are consumed to produce one ton of acetate silk - from 14 to 20 thousand kWh and tons of artificial abrasives - about 6-9 thousand kWh is about as much as the production Powerful tractor.

For the development of the chemical industry, the widest automation of technological processes is characterized. Complex automation is primarily necessary in the chemical industry, for which the large scale of production is characteristic. The automation of the chemical industry contributes to the predominance of continuous processes of production, as well as harmful and even dangerous work. In the chemical industry, the processes of temperature, pressure, composition, reaction velocity, etc. are primarily automated, because for continuous chemical processes (inaccessible to direct observation) it is especially important to maintain the stability of technological modes. In the chemical production, complete mechanization and automation was mainly carried out, and only the functions and control functions remain outside the person, as well as the implementation of preventive repair.

The most important areas of automation of chemical production are the introduction of new automatic devices based on the use of electronic mathematical machines, the transition to the integrated mechanization and automation of whole chemical plants. In the United States, the largest development automation was obtained in the oil and chemical industry. Along with the automation of the management of individual installations, individual technological processes are put into operation fully automated enterprises, such as, for example, in 1949, an oil refining plant, equipped with an electronic system of production processes, and then the ammonium plant of Spencer Camikel, distinguished by high The degree of automation of production processes. The rapid development of chemistry led to the fact that only for 10-15 years after the end of World War II, hundreds of new materials that replace metal, wood, wool, silk, glass and much more were created.

The accelerated pace is the development of the production of synthetic materials required to ensure technical progress in various sectors of the national economy. At the same time, the growth of mineral fertilizer production is characteristic, as well as pesticides and ammonia, an increase in the use of oil and natural gases, coke gas and coxing products for the production of synthetic resins, rubber, alcohol, detergents, high-quality varnishes and dyes, plastics, artificial fiber, electrical insulating materials, special materials for mechanical engineering, radio engineering, etc.

In particular, new effective synthesis methods are introduced to avoid spending huge quantitative foods in the production of technical products. For example, the consumption of a huge amount of grain on the production of ethyl alcohol to produce a synthetic rubber put forward the task of replacing the food product in synthetic alcohol. To obtain 1 T of ethyl alcohol instead of 4 tons of grain or 10 tons of potatoes, it is enough to spend 2 tons of liquefied natural gas. For the production of 1 tons of synthetic rubber instead of almost 9 tons of grain or 22 tons of potatoes, only about 5 tons of liquefied gas oil refineries are sufficient.

Many economists believe that in the next decade, more than 50% of world chemical products will be obtained from petroleum raw materials. All this indicates the great achievements of organic synthesis.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the development of socialist production demanded the expansion of the scope of the practical application of chemistry, increasing the role of special chemical and chemical-technological education, raising the level of training both researchers and teachers and chemical engineers. In the early 1920s Independent chemical branches are organized as part of the physico-mathematical faculties of universities. At these branches, specializations were introduced on inorganic, physical, organic, analytical chemistry, biochemistry and agrochemistry. In 1920, the Moscow Chemical Technology Institute has been created. D. I. Mendeleev. Since 1929, on the basis of chemical departments, universities opened independent chemical faculties to train specialists for research institutions and laboratories of chemical industries, new chemical and technological institutions are being created.

From the mid-1950s. In chemistry and chemical technology, the finest methods of research of various substances are created, new materials are produced - chemical fibers, plastics, sitals, semiconductors, new physiologically active substances and drugs, chemical fertilizers and insectofungsides. Chemistry has penetrated all branches of science and national economy. Chemical education Therefore, it became an integral part of the training of specialists in polytechnic, industrial, metallurgical, energy, electrical, machinery and instrument-making, geological, mountainous, oil, S.-H., Forestry, medical, veterinary, food, light industry, and others. Higher and secondary special educational institutions.

Specialists for scientific and pedagogical activities are preparing mainly chemical faculties of universities and pedagogical institutions, as well as faculties chemical-biological, biological and chemical, natural science, etc.

The training of chemist specialists in Soviet universities lasts 5 years (in the evening and correspondence departments - to 6). Here are special courses of inorganic, organic, analytical, physical, colloidal chemistry, crystalochemistry, and general chemical technology, and chemistry of high molecular compounds. Over half of the study time on special disciplines occupies the work of students in laboratories. Students undergo industrial practice (28 weeks) at enterprises, in research institutions and laboratories.

The training of specialists in chemistry and chemical technology and teachers for higher educational institutions continues in graduate school the largest centers for training chemists, except universities, are institutions: Moscow chemical and technological. D. I. Mendeleeva, Leningrad technological im. Lensovet, Moscow Institute of Thin Chemical Technology. M. V. Lomonosov, Belarusian technological. S. M. Kirov, Voronezh Technological, Dnepropetrovsk chemical and technological. F. E. Dzerzhinsky, Ivanovo Chemical-Technological, Kazan Chemical and Technological. S. M. Kirov, Kazakh chemical and technological, etc.

Chemist specialists (techniques - technologies) are also prepared in secondary special educational institutions - in chemical and chemical and technological techniques, located, as a rule, in the centers of the chemical industry, with large chemical combines. In 1977, more than 120 such educational institutions were preparing technicians over 30 chemical and chemical-technological specialties (chemical technology of oil, gas, coal, glass and products from it, chemical fiber technology, etc.). Through these educational institutions are used in chemical industries as masters, brigadiers, laboratory technicians, apparatuses, etc. Chemical and technological vocational schools meet the need for qualified workers for various industries of the chemical industry.

Improving the structure and content of chemical and chemical and technological education is associated with the scientific and pedagogical activities of many Soviet scientists - A. E. Arbuzova, B. A. Arbuzova, A. N. Baha, S. I. Wolfkovich, N. D. Zelinsky, I. A. Kablukov, V. A. Karina, I. L. Knunyantz, D. P. Konovalova, S. V. Lebedeva, S. S. Netkin, B. V. Nekrasova, A. N. Nesmeyanova, A. E. Raji-Koshitsa, A. N. Reformatsky, S. N. Reformatsky, N. N. Semenova, Ya. K. Syrkina, V. E. Tishchenko, A. E. Favorsky and others. New achievements of chemically illuminated in Special chemical magazines helping to improve the scientific level of chemistry courses and chemical technology at the highest school.

In developed countries, major centers of the structure and content of chemical and chemical and technological education are: Great Britain - Cambridge, Oxford, Batsky, Birmingham Universities, Manchester Polytechnic Institute; In Italy - Bologna, Milan Universities; In the USA - California, Colombian, Michigan Technological Universities, Toledo University, California, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; In France - Grenoblsky 1st, Marseille 1st, Clermont-Ferransky, Compa Technological, Lyon 1st, Montpered 2nd, Paris 6th and 7th Universities, Laurent, Toulouse Polytechnic Institutions; In Hepmania - Dortmund, Hannover, Stuttgart Universities, Higher Technical Schools in Darmstadt and Karlsruhe; In Japan - Kyoto, Okayamsky, Osaksky, Tokyo Universities, etc.

, M., 1971;

Basics of technology and petrochemical synthesis, ed. A. I. Dintsez and L. A. Toltolsky, M., 1960.